![]() This era saw re-established Ottoman control over Transylvania and Crete, and expansion into southern Ukraine. During the Köprülü Era, effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. It was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. ![]() In southern Europe, a Catholic coalition led by Philip II of Spain won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto. 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. Under Ivan IV, the Russians expanded into former Ottoman territories in the Volga and Caspian region. ![]() But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology during a period of misrule by weaker Sultans. Finally the Ottoman economic system grew distorted and impoverished, as war caused inflation, world trade moved in other directions, and the deterioration of law and order made economic progress difficult. The military strength of the Ottomans' European enemies was also improving, while the Ottomans' military might wasn't. The main cause was a failure of leadership, as most of the sultans before this era had mostly done good for the empire. The empire faced a sharp economic decline in 1566, which historians blame on degenerate sultans, incompetent Viziers, and ill-equipped armies. In 1555, the Caucasus was partitioned between the Ottomans and Safavids, with the Ottomans gaining access to western Georgia and Armenia. In the east, the Ottomans took Baghdad from Persia, giving them naval access to the Persian Gulf. Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans then laid siege to Vienna in 15, but both failed. During this time, the Ottomans also established rule in Egypt and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. During the early 1500s, the Ottomans defeated both Persia and Hungary, further expanding Ottoman frontiers into central Europe and western Asia. Resistance from Albanians prevented the Ottoman Empire from ever expanding into the Italian peninsula. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a period of expansion both land-wise and economically under numerous effective sultans and control over numerous trade routes. They still let the former Byzantines practice their Orthodox faith, as long as they recognized Ottoman authority over them. The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and conquered Constantinople, ending the last Roman successor. Afterwards, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective as the empire owned nearly all former Byzantine lands except for the capital, but the Byzantines were relieved when the Timurid Empire invaded Anatolia from the east. The Ottoman victory in Kosovo marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. A century later, Ottoman rule began to expand into the eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. ![]() It is not well understood how Osman came to dominate his neighbors as the history of medieval Anatolia is relatively unknown. One of these was led by Osman I, from whom the name Ottoman is derived. In the 14th century, Anatolia was divided into numerous independent states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I, who arrived in Anatolia from Merv, with 400 horsemen to aid the Sultanate of Rum. ![]()
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